H. J. Hofmann, 1971, Precambrian Fossils, Pseudofossils, and Problematica in Canada.
On Wednesday, April 24, 2019 I attended at the offices of the Geological Survey of Canada at 601 Booth Street in Ottawa, met with Michelle Coyne, a Curator with the Geological Survey of Canada, and photographed GSC 221, a specimen of Aspidella terranovica, Billings 1872. While this is likely a specimen collected by Alexander Murray, it is not the missing holotype for Aspidella terranovica. Below I will set out the reasons against it being the holotype, and why it might be considered an epitype (an additional and clarifying type where the original material is demonstrably ambiguous or insufficient.)
Below are photographs that I took of the upper surface of GSC 221. Note the ringed and puckered morphology shown on the left disc in the second photo. Tarhan et al. (2015, page 129) suggest that the puckered morphology captures the top exterior surface of the holdfast.
Sam_ 0198, Sam_0200, Sam_0204
The slab is larger than most would expect and shows more than the two discs depicted by Billings. I measured the largest elliptical discs, which have the measurements 32 mm x 22 mm, 22 mm x 11 mm, 23 mm x 20 mm, 15 mm x 12 mm, 12 mm x 10 mm, 9 mm x 5 mm, 7 mm x 6 mm, 9 mm x6 mm, 12+ mm x 12 mm, and 12 mm x 11 mm.
The second thing one notices is that most of the Aspidella discs on GSC 221
do not look like Billings’ drawing or the plastotype (see below) and the larger discs are not the end member Aspidella-type morphological variation of Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, figure 6). The larger discs are more of a Spriggia-type or Ediacaria-type variation of Aspidella terranovica.
There is a crack through the middle of the specimen GSC 221, which cuts through one of the large Aspidella ellipses. Below are photographs showing the cross-sections of a large Aspidella disc and may show other Aspidella bulbs that are not visible on the surface.
Sam_0215, Sam_0213
Note that the dark blobs that represent Aspidella bulbs come in from the bottom of the photos as well as the top, but the Aspidella discs are not shown on the photo (below, with the label) of the bottom of the slab. The grey elongate blobs coming out of the bottom may represent stalks. If one compares those photographs with cross-sections of Aspidella bulbs shown in the diagrams in Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, Figures 11, 12, 13), it is not clear whether the surface of GSC 221 bearing the Aspidella discs is a bed sole or a bed top. (One will also notice that there is a lot of sand/silt beneath the surface shale layer and the bottom shale layer.)
The Initials A.M. on the Label on the Back of Specimen GSC 221
Below is a photograph [Sam_0229] of an undated label on the back of specimen GSC 221, bearing on three separate lines “Saint John’s, Newfoundland, A. M.” I assume that the initials A.M. are those of Alexander Murray, the person who first reported and collected the structures that Billings named Aspidella terranovica.
The label on the back could be the original label, as it is consistent with a statement in a paper by T. C. Weston (1891 [1894]), of the Geological Survey of Canada, where on describing a label he commented: “About the year 1863, forms with a decided concretionary aspect were found in the Huronian rocks of St. John's, Newfoundland. (The label on the specimen now in the geological museum, Ottawa, gives the exact locality, but not the date.)” While Weston is describing the specimen of ‘Oldhamia’ referred to in Murray (1868, page 13), Weston’s figures (1891 [1894], 1895[1898]) appear to be a rubbing of Aspidella discs.
Weston’s figure appears to be a Spriggia-type or Ediacara-type morphological variation of Aspidella terranovica of Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, figure 6) and resembles the Aspidella discs on GSC 221. It also resembles many depictions of Aspidella in the literature. For example, Weston’s drawing could easily be a rubbing of Mary Wade’s (1972) plate 41, Figures 3, 4, 5 showing Cyclomedusa davidi Sprigg, which Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, page 448) view as a junior synonym of Aspidella terranovica.
Murray (1868c, page 13) in his ‘Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1868' mentions the structures that he identified as Oldhamia in his description of rocks in a section near St. John’s: “The fossil forms, supposed to be of the genus Oldhamia, were found in these slates towards the top.” Earlier in that report he described the structures (1868, pages 11-12) as follows: “I have long had some obscure forms in my possession, collected in the neighbourhood of St. John's, which were suspected to be organisms of a low type, but which I could not venture to pronounce to be such without palaeontological reference. Since Mr Harvey's discovery I have obtained many more, all apparently of the same low order of existence;”. Interestingly, on the Hathitrust copy of Murray’s 1868 report (original from Columbia University; Sterry Hunt’s name is in pen on the front cover), someone has written in pen ‘Aspidella terra-novica Billings’ on page 11 adjacent to Murray’s text that I quoted. More importantly, no one has found Oldhamia in the rocks where Murray reported finding the specimens.
In a footnote added to the reprinted report (Murray and Howley, 1881, page 144) when discussing the above, Murray added:
“The forms in question were supposed to resemble the Oldhamii of Bray Head, but were pronounced upon examination by the late E. Billings to be undeterminable. He doubted their organic origin altogether. At a later date, however, fossils of a very low type were found, which Mr. Billings describes and names Aspidella terranovica and arenicolites.”
Hofmann (1971, page14; Plate 5, figure 10) when discussing ‘Oldhamia, Murray 1868' notes that “Weston did not provide a scale for his photograph”, “The specimens... are supposed to be in the Survey collections in Ottawa. “The whereabouts of the type specimen is not known...”. It appears that GSC 221 could be the missing type specimen for ‘Oldhamia, Murray 1868' , but actually shows Aspidella terranovica.
Sadly, Weston (1891 [1894], page 139) commented on his involvement surrounding the history of the specimen as follows:
“A number of pieces of green argillite with these markings were sent to Sir Wm. Logan for examination. I was instructed to slice and examine them with the microscope, but before doing so ventured to tell Sir William that they were only concretions, and that, moreover, they lay transverse to the bedding of the rock. He was much vexed and showed a long paragraph about them which had appeared in one of the Newfoundland papers. Much to the disappointment of the discoverer of these supposed wonderful fossils, they were only concretions.”
A Structure on the Edge of specimen GSC 221.
Below are photographs of a structure on the edge of specimen GSC 221. While this is not evident from the photographs, the ribs/rays descend and converge toward the center. It is not clear whether this represents the interior/internal structure/Eoporpita variant of an Aspidella holdfast bulb.
Sam_0212
Elkanah Billings’ Drawing and Description of Aspidella terranovica
Billings’ drawing and description of Aspidella appeared in at least three publications. Below is Billings’ drawing of Aspidella terranovica as first published in The Canadian Naturalist (1872, volume vi, page 478).
Worth noting is the legend to the figure, which describes “two specimens on a small slab of stone, slightly restored”. GSC 221 is not a small slab of stone.
Here is Billings’ description of Aspidella terranovica:
“These are small ovate fossils five or six lines in length and about one-fourth less in width. They have a narrow ring-like border, within which there is a concave space all round. In the middle there is a longitudinal roof-like ridge, from which radiate a number of grooves to the border. The general aspect is that of a small Chiton or Patella, flattened by pressure. It is not probable, however, that they are allied to either of these genera.”
Associated with these are numerous specimens of what appear to be Arenicolites spiralis, a fossil that occurs in a formation lying below the primordial rocks in Sweden. These fossils were first discovered by A. Murray, Esq., F.G.S., in 1866. Other specimens were collected by Capt. Kerr, R,N., Mr. Howley and Mr. Robertson.
They occur near St. Johns, in the Huronian. A more detailed description will be given hereafter.”
Elkanah Billings states that Aspidella “are small ovate fossils five or six lines in length and about one-fourth less in width.” A ‘line’ is a unit of measurement. Wikipedia states that the ‘line’ was “a small English unit of length, variously reckoned as 1/10, 1/12, 1/16, or 1/40 of an inch. It was not included among the units authorized as the British Imperial system in 1824. ... Botanists formerly used the units (usually as 1/12 inch) to measure the size of plant parts.... Stearns gives its length as 2.25 mm. Even after metrication, British botanists continued to employ tools with gradations marked as linea (lines); the British line is approx. 2.1 mm and the Paris line approx. 2.3 mm”
Assuming that’s Billings’s ‘line’ is approximately 2.1 mm, his “ovate fossils five or six lines in length and about one-fourth less in width” would have been about 10 to 12 mm in length and about 7 to 8 mm in width. The Aspidella ellipses that I measured on GSC 221 include many that are much larger.
Is the Holotype of Aspidella a Bed Sole or Bed Top Preservation?
Elkanah Billings stated that “They have a narrow ring-like border, within which there is a concave space all round. In the middle there is a longitudinal roof-like ridge, from which radiate a number of grooves to the border.” It is important to note that Billings mentions a ‘concave space’ and a middle ‘roof-like ridge.’ If one compares Billings description and the plastotype (shown below) with the photographs that appear in Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, Figure 9B, part and counterpart; and Figure 8C), it appears that the holotype of Aspidella could be either a bed top or bed sole (Gehling et al., 2000, do not identify which parts are the bed sole or bed top for those photos). A few of the photographs on the bed shown in Gehling et al.’s Figure 9B - counterpart (right), are dead ringers for discs on the plastotype, as Billings drawing and the plastotype show a middle ‘roof-like ridge’ that fits in the ‘central slit or invagination’ of the ‘type morph with marginal rim’ shown in Figures 8C and 9A.
Menon (2015) provides the answer as to whether the plastotype and Billings’ drawing are found on the bed sole or bed top. She commented (at page 138) “The discoidal impression Aspidella terranovica Billings 1872 was the first-named Ediacaran body fossil (Gehling et al., 2000). Described from outcrops of the Fermeuse Formation in St John’s, Newfoundland, it has a characteristic morphology. On bed soles in the Fermeuse Formation it appears as a positive impression, with a central furrow or invagination from which extend fine radial grooves (Fig. 5.1A). Counterparts on bed tops appear as negative discoidal impressions with a central ridge and fine radial ridges (Fig. 5.1B).”
If one compares Billings’ description (and the plastotype) with GSC 221, it is evident that Billings’ description is not the main style of preservation for the Aspidella discs on GSC 221. (The smaller discs on the first photo are the Aspidella-type morphological variation but with a middle indentation, rather than a middle longitudinal roof-like ridge as defined by Billings.)
Plastotype – GSC type 221c
The Geological Survey of Canada’s specimen GSC 221c is generally considered to be the plastotype of Aspidella. Below is a photograph that I took of GSC 221c.
Sam_0225
The Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines ‘plastotype’ as follows:
an artificial specimen cast or molded directly from a type specimen (as of a fossil)
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plastotype The online site dictionary.com notes that the word ‘plastotype’ derives from the Greek plast(ós ) molded (see -plast) + -o- + -type
Interestingly, GSC 221c is metal rather than plaster. A comparison of GSC 221c with Billings’ drawing and description reveals that GSC 221c is likely the cast of his specimen (or more accurately, was cast in metal from a plaster cast of his specimens). Not only does the plastotype match Billings’ drawing and description, but the two ovate Aspidella on GSC 221c measure 12 mm x 7 mm and 9 mm x 6 mm, which is the size mentioned by Billings. In addition, they have a ‘narrow ring-like border’, with a ‘concave space all around’, and middle ridges ‘from which radiate a number of grooves to the border’, as Billings described.
I tried to match Billings’ plastotype with the Aspidella discs on GSC 221, but could not find a match. Michelle Coyne also had a quick look and found no match.
GSC Specimen 221a from Ferryland and Specimen 221b from St. John’s
I also photographed GSC 221a and GSC 221b, specimens figured by Walcott (1899) in Plate 27, which he described as “Figures 7, 8. — Type specimens in collection of the Geological Survey of Canada.”. These also appear in Häntzschel (1962, Figure 145 - 3a, 3b), Hofmann (1971, Plate 5, figures 2 and 3) and in Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000, Figure 4, C and B). Hofmann (1971) noted that these two specimens “which may not belong to the ‘species’ but are labelled Aspidella terranovica, are in the same collection as the plastotype.”
Sam_0220 is GSC 221a; Sam_0221 is GSC 221b
The Missing Specimens
It is fairly clear to me that GSC 221 is not the holotype for Aspidella terrranovica (wrong size slab, wrong sizes of Aspidella discs, too many discs, wrong morphological variation of Aspidella terranovica, and the plastotype and Billings’ drawing can’t be matched with any of the discs on GSC 221), and that the holotype is still missing.
I believe that GSC 221 is likely the missing type specimen for ‘Oldhamia, Murray 1868', but is actually a Spriggia-type or Ediacaria-type morphological variation of Aspidella terranovica rather than a form of Oldhamia. As it was collected by Alexander Murray, it is possibly a candidate to be an epitype (an additional and clarifying type where the original material is demonstrably ambiguous or insufficient) for Aspidella terranovica.
When I met with Michelle Coyne we discussed that Dr. Alice E. Wilson (1957) wrote that she could remember the specimens of Aspidella being packed and stored after the burning of the Parliament Buildings in 1916, when Parliament was moved to the Victoria Memorial Museum, and that Dr. Alice E. Wilson had reported that Aspidella terranovica was still in storage in 1957. Michelle believes that specimen GSC 221 has been at 601 Booth Street since about 1958 or 1959 when the survey moved into 601 Booth Street. She also told me that when Dr. Hofmann was looking for the specimen in 1970 there was no index by holotype number, there was no index by the name of the specimen, there were no lists of specimens in each storage cabinet, and there was a unique way of grouping specimens in the cabinets. In essence unless Dr. Hofmann had known where the specimen was before he started looking for it, Dr. Hofmann wasn’t going to find it.
Michelle Coyne noted that 221 was a number assigned to the specimen by Alice E. Wilson and was not Billings’ numbering system. As Dr. Wilson worked for the Geological Survey of Canada from 1909, starting in the Museum, and the specimens were in storage from 1916 to 1957, it is safe to assume that she applied the numbers 221, 221a, 221b and 221c to the specimens sometime between 1909 and 1916. It also appears from her 1957 comments (“The writer remembers these specimens in the Museum of the Geological Survey. After the burning of the Parliament Buildings, when Parliament was moved to the Museum Building, the exhibits were packed and stored.”) that all four were displayed together in the museum as Aspidella terranovica.
An interesting question is “When did the various morphological variations of Aspidella terranovica start being grouped together?” Walcott (1899) and Weston (1896) might provide a partial answer. Walcott (1899) in Plate 27 provided photographs of specimens that we now identify as GSC 221b and GSC 221a which he described as “Figures 7, 8. — Type specimens in collection of the Geological Survey of Canada.”. Yochelson (1998) in his biography of Charles Doolittle Walcott notes that Walcott visited the geological survey’s museum in Ottawa in 1885 and 1886.
Weston (1896) remarked on the variation of Aspidella, stating that “While in the City of St. Johns in 1874, I made a diligent search for these forms and collected several of the so-called Aspidella. These, together with all other specimens now in the Dominion Geological museum, vary so much in form and appearance that I am afraid they also will ultimately be classed with the concretionary forms already spoken.” Weston (1899) called it “one of those doubtful forms”.
Points Mentioned in References and Suggested Reading
Below I’ve included a number of references and quotations only tangentially related to this blog topic. Worth noting are the following points.
- While Matthew, 1898 , in a note to Packard, wrote that he had “seen Aspidella terranovica in the museum at Ottawa and doubt its organic origin. It seems to me a slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure.”, he reported that he had “found similar objects in the Etcheminian olive-gray beds below the Saint John group”, which might be the first (and only) report of Aspidella from those beds. Matthew (1885a, 1885b) had earlier described Aspidella as an “organic form”. Later, when summarizing life in the Precambrian and Cambrian, Matthew (1912) makes no mention of Aspidella.
- Packard (1898), in the text of his speech, describes Aspidella as a mollusc, but in a footnote calls it a “supposed fossil” and refers to Matthews note doubting its organic origin and quotes Matthew’s statement that it is slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure.
- Walcott’s views changed over time. Initially Walcott (1890, 1891) treated Aspidella as a fossil. While Walcott (1899) commented that Aspidella is “probably of organic origin but it may be questioned” and quoted Matthew’s (1898) note to Packard doubting its organic origin, Walcott (1900) commented “A collection of the form known as Aspidella terranovica was made from the Momable terrane of the Avalon series. It proved the supposed fossil to be a spherulitic concretion, and this removes it from among the possible pre-Cambrian forms of life.” Walcott (1901) repeated that they were inorganic in an article written in French [Translation: I was convinced on the spot that the Aspidella of Momable's schists are of inorganic origin.] Walcott (1910) did not mention it in his summary of Precambrian fossils.
- Dawson was not consistent as to his views on Aspidella, describing it as “The curious limpet-like objects” (1875a, 1875b), ‘the problematical Aspidella...that may have been a mollusk, allied to Patella, or some obscure form of crustacean’ (1875c), ‘peculiar fossils,” (1878), "the uncertain fossils described by Billings as Aspidella" (1888), “The peculiar fossils’ and “ the doubtful fossils”(1889).
- Dana in his Manual of geology (1875, Second Edition; 1880, Third Edition; 1894, Fourth Edition) considered Aspidella to be “Of undetermined relations” and “a fossil of uncertain relations”.
- Ramsay (1873) considered Aspidella to be a fossil,
- Sterry Hunt (1872, 1875a, 1875b) considered Aspidella and Arenicolites to be “organic remains” and “organic forms”.
- Miller (1877) considered Aspidella to be a fossil putting it in the Class Pteropoda, but grouped it under Incertae sedis (Latin for "of uncertain placement"). Pteropoda are specialized free-swimming pelagic sea snails and sea slugs– marine gastropods.
- Barrande (1881) mentions Aspidella in his treatise on Molluscs, but considered it “de nature problématique” [Translation: of problematic nature]
- Tryon (1882) in volume 2 of his treatise on Mollusca noted that Miller had referred Aspidella to the Pteropoda , but commented that it is “a very doubtful fossil”.
- Zittel (1885) classified Aspidella under Mollusca, Unterklasse - Pteropoda, Ordnung - Thecosomata, Familie - Hyalaeidae, and put Aspidella in with a group of fossils that he considered “sind theils mangelhaft erhaltene, theils ungenügend charakterisirte silurische Genera.” [Translation: are partly poorly preserved, partly insufficiently characterized Silurian genera.], and made the same comments in the French language version published in 1887 (“sont des genres siluriens incomplétement conservé, ou insuffisament caractérisés”), but Aspidella was not mentioned in the English translation of his work published in 1900
- While Nicholson (1876) called them “certain problematical limpet-shaped fossils”, White and Nicholson (1878) described Aspidella as “curious fossils”, noting that the “the affinities of [Aspidella] are uncertain.”
- Hitchcock (1877) had an interesting interpretation, possibly following Dawson (1875c), stating that “The Aspidella bears some resemblance to the limpet-shell or Patella, while it may have been some variety of crustacean.”
- Crié (1883) considered it a fossil
- Whitney and Wadsworth (1884) commented “To us, the general aspect of the fossil in question, as figured by Mr. Billings, is that of a concretion intersected by small irregular cracks, and much more resembling the so-called Septaria than anything organic.
- Whitney and Wadsworth (1884) also remarked on the variation commenting that “Specimens of Aspidella sent us by Mr. Murray, however, do not resemble in any respect the fossil figured by Mr. Billings. There are several indistinct impressions on the fragment of rock, neither of them like that fossil, and none of them necessarily of organic origin, at least so far as we are able to discover. They look more like spray markings than anything else with which we are able to compare them.”
-Laflamme (1885) figured one of Billings’ drawings of Aspidella and considered it a species,
- The American Committee for the International Geological Congress held in 1888 in London (Fraser, 1888; Dana et al., 1891), of which Dana, Fraser, Hitchcock, Hunt, Pumpelly and Winchell were the committee members, commented “The Aspidella as a fossil is dismissed as a concretion intersected by small irregular cracks.”
- Marcou (1890) commented that “the only specimen of an organic structure certain and indisputable is the Aspidella terranovica Billings, compared to a small Chiton or Patella, flattened by pressure.”
- while Van Hise (1892) describes Aspidella as a fossil whose “organic origin can not be doubted” he also references Whitney and Wadsworth (1884) where “It is denied that Aspidella and Arenicolites are of organic origin.” Van Hise (1895) repeated that Aspidella as a fossil whose organic origin can not be doubted. Van Hise and Leith (1909) were inconsistent stating “The Aspidella of the Momable slates is probably of organic origin, but it may be questioned.”, mentioning that Murray had found the fossil Aspidella in Newfoundland, stating “An examination of the form known as Aspidella terranovica found in the Momable terrane of the Avalon series proved the supposed fossil to be a spherulitic concretion, and this removes it from among the possible pre-Cambrian forms of life.” and “ It contains two so-called fossils, Aspidella terranovica and Arenicolites spirales, but these have been held by Walcott not to be organic.”
- Howley (1892; 1917) describes Aspidella as an obscure fossil organism.
- de Launay (1894) viewed Aspidella and Arenicolites as “des organismes problématiques” [Translation: problematic organisms]
- at the 1894 International Geological Congress held in Zurich, Renevier (1897) commented on the absence of well-characterized and undisputed fossils in the Precambria.. Winchell (1897) considered Aspidella to be a fossil, but Cambrian not Huronian.
- While Billings stated “The general aspect is that of a small Chiton or Patella, flattened by pressure” and cautioned that “It is not probable, however, that they are allied to either of these genera.”, this did not prevent some from classifying Aspidella as a patelloid shell, including Hutton (1898 & 1902) .
- Garde (1900) described Aspidella as “bien qu'ayant l'aspect général d'un Chiton ou d'une Patelle, aplatis par la pression, n'étaient que des concrétions de vase striée par des mouvements mécaniques” [Translation: but these, although having the general aspect of a Chiton or a Patelle, flattened by the pressure, were only concretions of mud striated by mechanical motions]
- De Lapparent (1900) commented that where some authors have wanted to see a mollusk, while others viewed Aspidella as mere pressure effects, it has been recognized as a spheroidal concretion.
- Sir Archibald Geikie (1902) called it a fossil, but Geikie (1903) on reviewing possible Precambrian fossils, makes no mention of Aspidella
- Merrill (1903) mentions that the Museum of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland, in St. John’s, has specimens of “Arenicolites and Aspidella from Newfoundland, Oldhamia radiata from Ireland.”
- Xambeu (1906) considered Aspidella to be a genera of Pterapods – pelagic molluscs, but Cambrian.
- Solas (1909) commented ‘Aspidella is plainly organic’
- Charles Schuchert (1910) collects specimens of Aspidella from St. John’s for the Yale University collection
- in papers at the 1910 International Geological Congress in Stockholm, Matthew (1912) briefly reviews organic remains in the Precambrian making no mention of Aspidella, Evans (1912) mentions Beltina and Chuaria but not Aspidella, and neither Sollas (1912) nor Sederholm (1912) mention Aspidella
- Arldt (1912) considered Aspidella a fossil commenting “Auf der Halbinsel Avalon
kommen zusammen ... runde Schalen von Aspidella vor, die wie flachgedrückte Käferschnecken (Chiton) oder Napf-schnecken (Patella) aussehen ; beide primitiven Ordnungen angehörend” [Translation: On the Avalon peninsula there are also round shells of Aspidella, which look like flattened beetle snails (chiton) or tortoise snails (patella); belonging to both primitive orders]
- Perret (1913) reviewed whether Aspidella was a fossil mollusc or concretion, but chose not to take sides.
- Wurm (1914) considered Aspidella to be a probable Precambrian organic remain, commenting “Leider sind die Bemühungen, organische Reste zu finden, ziemlich erfolglos geblieben. Nur aus den sog. Momable-Schichten ist von Billings ein Rest angegeben worden, den er Aspidella terranovica nennt und der wohl organischen Ursprungs ist. Es handelt sich um ovale Körper, die in der Mitte einen auggewulsteten Ringe besitzen, von dem radiale Rinnen nach dem Rand ziehen.” [Translation: Unfortunately, efforts to find organic remains have been unsuccessful. Only from the so-called Momable layers has been given by Billings a remainder, which he calls Aspidella terranovica and which is probably of organic origin. These are oval bodies with rings in the middle, from which radial grooves run to the edge.]
- Buddington (1919) considered Aspidella to be a “possible fossil”.
- Clark (1923) commented that he did “ not hesitate to state that he believes it inorganic in origin. A tentative explanation is that these structures represent the sites of vents from which gas escaped...”
- Ruedemann (1925) remarked that “Although Aspidella terranovica appears in some of the older textbooks as a Precambrian fossil, it seems to have early fallen under suspicion. It is not any more cited by G. F. Matthew among the Upper Huronian Fossils of Newfoundland ... and Thomas H. Clark has more recently ... declared these structures to be inorganic origin and probably marking the sites of vent so escaping gas.”
- Metzger (1927) considered Aspidella, like Walcott’s Chuaria, to be “Fraglicher Natur” [Translation: of questionable nature]
- David (1928) appeared to follow Walcott, commenting “Aspidella terranovica, Billings, from Momable slates, Newfoundland, probably inorganic.”
- Roy (1932) considered Aspidella to be an obscure fossil.
- Dr. Morley Wilson (1939) commented that “Aspidella terranovica is a small ovate form discovered by Murray ... and named by Billings. G.F. Matthew, according to a quotation from a letter published by A.S. Packard, has stated that Aspidella seemed to him to be ‘a slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure’”
- von Bubnoff (1941) includes one of Walcott’s drawings of Aspidella in his figure 38 – Präkambrische Reste aus Nordamerika [Translation: Precambrian remains from North America]
- Kuhn (1949) in his Lehrbuch der Paläozoologie, discusses the fossil Patella and comments “Aspidella, steht Patella nahe, Algonkium”, which I translate as ‘Aspidella from the Algonkian (now, Proterozoic) is close to Patella’.
- an author (Unknown, 1949) in a a review of life in the Precambrian, classified Eozoon canadense, Aspidella terranovica and Atikokania Lawsoni as “les accidents minéralogiques”
[translation: mineralogical accidents]
- Rose (1952) commented that “The possible fossil Aspidella has been declared an inorganic concretion,”
- Richards (1953) commented “Aspidella terranovica is a small ovate form discovered by MURRAY in the Momable slates of the Avalonian series of Newfoundland and named by BILLINGS. G. F. Mattews, according to a quotation from a letter published by A. S. PACKARD, has stated that Aspidella seemed to him to be "a slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure" rather ... the mode of origin of Aspidella has not been discussed since its discovery was announced by MURRAY in 1872.”
- Schindewolf (1956), according to Hofmann (1971), described Aspidella as “Diagenic; pressure cones or buckling through escaping gas bubbles”;
- von Bubnoff (1956) includes one of Walcott’s drawings of Aspidella in his figure 38 – Präkambrische Reste aus Nordamerika [Translation Precambrian remains from North America]
- Dr. Alice E. Wilson (1957) commented “Billings (1873, 1874) described and illustrated by drawings (not photographs) some forms from the “Huronian” near St. John’s, Newfoundland. He named them Aspidella terranovica. ... Aspidella terranovica is still in storage. No tests were ever made upon the specimens. Matthew (1898) in a letter to A. S. Packard states that ‘Aspidella terranovica appears to be a slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure.’ Walcott (1899) figures a specimen as questionably Aspidella though elsewhere he cites Matthew’s opinion, and suggested that ‘they may be spherulitic concretions.’ The form has not been mentioned in the literature since.”
- Häntzschel (1962) describes Aspidella under the heading ‘Fossils Probably of Inorganic Origin’ as follows: Aspidella Billings, 1872 [*A. terranovica]. Small, ovate, narrow ringlike border; having general aspect of small Patella flattened by pressure (Schindewolf, 1956) . [Regarded by Matthew (1898) as slickensided mud concretion striated by pressure; somewhat similar to Guilielmites Geinitz.].
- Häntzschel (1962) includes Walcott’s two photographs of Aspidella (namely GSC 221a and GSC 221b) rather than Billings’ drawing. Later in that publication Häntzschell (1962) describes “Guilielmites Geinitz, 1858 ... Ellipsoidal bodies, 1 or 2 cm. in diameter; ...most authors ... consider them to be of inorganic origin (concretions or similar diagenetic structures);” and his photographs of Guilielmites on plate 147 resemble Aspidella
- Glaessner (1962), according to Hofmann (1971), described Aspidella as inorganic;
- Häntzschel (1965), according to Hofmann (1971), described Aspidella as “inorganic; pressure cone or gas bubble;”
- Cloud (1968), according to Hofmann (1971), described Aspidella as “concretion or spall mark”
- R. D. Hughes , according to Hsu (1972), considered that Aspidella was a jellyfish comparable with the medusoid of the late Precambrian Ediacara fauna of South Australia described by Glaessner and Wade (1966, 1968), [See Anonymous (1964): Hughes and Greene had a grant to study “Aspidella terranovica Billings - a Precambrian medusa?”; and note that Hughes and Greene collected a specimen of Aspidella terranovica, GSC type 24371, that is figured in Hofmann (1971 & 1992)]
- Goldring (1967), according to Hsu (1972), examined Hsu’ s collection of specimens of Aspidella and contended that they were load structures and definitely not fossils.
- McCartney (1967) notes that Murray and Howley had mapped rocks in the area he was mapping “as the Aspidella slates”, but does not comment on Aspidella
- Misra (1969) mentions “the doubtful fossil Aspidella terranovica Billings from the St. John's Formation", and described "Leaf-Shaped Organisms" comprised of “three parts: a main body having leaf-shaped structure (Pls. 3B and 6D) and needle-shaped projection (Pls. 1D,7A, and Fig. 2) ; an stalk (Pls. 4B and 6D); and a round base attached to the stalk." ..."The animals in some cases were broken from the base and moved slightly in the direction of the currents, leaving the disc-shaped base behind (Pl. 1H)"
- Unknown (1970) commented “Autoren erwähnte Aspidella terranovica Billings 1872 gennant, die sicher anorganishchen Ursprungs ist. Sie wurde schon vor langem als Druckkegel oder Gasblasenkrater gedeutet.” [Translation: the authors mentioned Aspidella terranovica Billings 1872, which is certainly of inorganic origin. It was long ago interpreted as pressure cone or gas bubble crater
- Hofmann (1971) provides a table summarizing earlier references to Aspidella, noting that “the structures have been variously interpreted as organic (mollusks, crustaceans) and inorganic (striated concretions, sites of gas vents, pressure cones, gas bubble craters, spall marks)”, and provides a photograph showing an aspidella-like radial pattern with medial ridge produced experimentally. He concluded that “Aspidella can reasonably be attributed to tectonic deformation, and the structure itself can be interpreted to mechanical origin resulting from differential movement of mud”, summarizing his observations as “of mechanical origin; focussed surfaces of rupture.”
- Hsu (1972), in an unpublished thesis, divided the Aspidella like markings and associated concentric discs into six types based on morphological features (such as relief, size, shape, number of concentric rings, central longitudinal groove, and radial lines), notes that “The markings are round to elliptical in shape and both forms may occur on the same surface...The elliptical forms clearly show a preferred orientation on bedding surfaces.... The author considers that the elongation represents stretching due to tectonic deformation;”, notes that “There is transition in morphology between the six types;” and concluded that “Aspidella terranovica Billings 1872 and associated surface markings ... are considered to be inorganic sedimentary structures such as load casts and gas- or water-escape structure”
- Häntzschel (1975) commented “Ovate structures, up to 3 by 4 cm. in size; rooflike ridge in central area of ellipse, with fine radial ridges and grooves extending to periphery; narrow ringlike border; mostly on bedding planes all oriented in one direction; having general aspect of small Patella flattened by pressure. [BILLINGS (1872) regarded Aspidella as fossil; MATTHEW (in PACKARD, 1898) interpreted it as slickensided mud concretions striated by pressure; WALCOTT (1899) and VAN HISE & LEITH (1909) were doubtful whether organic or inorganic; regarded by SCHINDEWOLF (1956) as inorganic and identical with Guilielmites GEINITZ; according to GOLDRING (1969), partly attributable to water- or gas-escape structures and interpreted by CLOUD (1968) as compaction and spall marks; according to HOFMANN (1971) inorganic, focused surfaces of rupture; for detailed discussion, complete summary of references, and various interpretations, see HOFMANN (1971, p. 16). ”
- in an article in a Polish journal published in 1977, Kozlowska-Koch commented “The doubtful genera Aspidella Billings from the Precambrian of Newfoundland and Chuaria Walcott, which on account of their form and size were originally regards as belonging to the forminifera, turned out to be concretions as well.”
- Williams and King (1979) report on the Mistaken point fauna of the Trepassey map area, mentioning that “Disc-like impressions are of several varieties (Fig. 14C). Most are comparable with Charniodiscus concentricus Ford (1958), from the Precambrian Charnian succession of Leicestershire. A rather rare variety at Mistaken Point, with numerous concentric annulations, bears close resemblance to an impression in the Charnwood succession described by Ford (1968, p. 13) and thought to resemble Cyclomedusa davidi Sprigg, which is found in the Ediacara fauna of Australia as well. Disc-like forms with radial depressions (Fig. 14B) are probably medusoid impressions. Frond-like impressions at Mistaken Point, which resemble Charnia masoni Ford (1958), are in places joined by a stalk to the disc-like forms (Charniodiscus), and thus may represent one organism (Fig. l 4E). The disc presumably represents a circular anchorage for the once-upright frondlike form.”
- Williams and King (1979) also discuss the Fermeuse Formation and mention that "Circular structures on bedding surfaces, from 1 to 10 cm diameter, were previously interpreted as the trace fossil Aspidella terranovica Billings, 1872. These occur toward the top of the formation with the best examples in the map area at Clear Cove on the north side of Fermeuse Harbour."
- the author (Unknown, 1979) of a paper on the Jodhpur Group of rocks, India, commented “Our specimens compare well, at least superficially, with Aspidella Billings, 1872– a “fossil” probably of inorganic origin but these do not display the characteristic radial patterns of Aspidella"
- Yochelson (1979a), in an article summarizing Walcott’s career, reports on Walcott’s examination of Aspidella in Newfoundland and appears to endorse Walcott’s view that Aspidella is inorganic
- King (1980) commented that "Aspidella terranovica, Billings, 1872, present in the shales, is thought to be inorganic although some of the larger varieties may be medusoid impressions."
- Hofmann (1981) in his review of the 70's makes no mention of Aspidella, but in his discussion of megafossils discusses new occurrences of large medusoids
- Kauffman and Steidtmann (1981, page 925) reviewed Precambrian trace fossils and commented “g, small subcircular structures, Aspidella terranovica Billings, interpreted by Hofmann (1971, Pl 4, figs. 1-6) as having been mechanically produced except for one unique specimen with concentric “wrinkles” and a coiled apex having apparent characteristics of simple mollusks (fide, Walcott, 1899, Pl. 27, fig. 7); this trace has never been explained.”
- Glaessner (1984, p. 93-97) in a review of Precambrian fauna covers Newfoundland highlighting the Mistaken Point Formation and discusses the disc-like impressions, but does not mention Aspidella
- Cloud (1985) stated that “Walcott (1883) reported the first genuine body fossil ever to be described from pre-Phanerozoic rocks. He referred to it as ‘a small Dicinoid shell,’ named 16 years later (Walcott, 1899) as Churaria circularis,...” Cloud makes no mention of Aspidella.
- Sun (1986) comments that “The type species C. davidi Sprigg and C. radiata Sprigg are considered as a single species because of differences due to preservation.”
- Hofmann (1987) commented “Although simple metazoans may have been found early on in the Newfoundland succession (Aspidella, Billings, 1872), these have been regarded as doubtful by many workers, but they should be restudied to ascertain whether they are not, indeed, real fossils.”
- Landing et al. (1988) in papers on and a Field Trip in the Avalon Peninsula to look at Ediacaran and Cambrian fauna and trace fossils have a stop at Ferryland where “numerous examples of the pseudofossil Aspidella terranovica Billings, 1872, are present on bedding surfaces of steeply eastdipping shales of the St. John’s Group,” and figure a “disc-like form with concentric annulations” from the Mistaken Point Formation
- Tchoumatchenco and Sapunov (1989) record finding Aspidella in marble in Bulgaria.
- King (1990) reported “ problematical circular to oval markings ... They were interpreted by early workers as the trace fossil Aspidella terranovica, Billings, 1872. A detailed account and discussion of these markings is in Hsu (1972). ... Commonly associated with Aspidella are larger disc-like varieties that resemble holdfasts; some forms may be medusoid impressions.” King (1990) also commented on the ‘Mistaken Point Formation' noting it was “profusely fossiliferous having a variety of frond-like and disc-like impressions”
- Seilacher (1990) collects specimens of Aspidella from a roadcut on west side of Newfoundland Rt 10, immediately North of Ferryland Museum, Ferryland, for the Yale museum
- Hofmann et al. (1991) examined an assemblage of fossil discoids of variable morphology, noting that they were “similar to a number of discoids such as Chamiodiscus, Cyclomedusa, Medusinites, Paliella, Spriggia, and concentrically patterned forms from the Conception Group of Newfoundland illustrated by Walcott (1899, P1.27, fig. 7) as Aspidella terranovica; ... The specimen with radial markings illustrated by Walcott, however, does not have the morphology of typical A. terranovica, which exhibits a strong longitudinal roof-like ridge occupying the central portion at or near the position of the longer axis of the ellipse of each specimen; fine radial ridges and grooves emanate not from a point or small central area as in Irridinitus but from along most of the length of the roof-like ridge. Both genera may be closely related, and it is possible that I. multiradiatus may eventually be shown to be a second species of Aspidella. ... Aspidella has been variously interpreted as both biologic and nonbiologic ... Hofmann (1971, 1972) regarded it as a dubiofossil, probably of mechanical origin. New materials found since then in Newfoundland, as well as collections of similar material from eastern Europe and the Rocky Mountains ... suggest that a biological interpretation should be reconsidered for Aspidella.
- Hofmann (1992) in a short article entitled ‘Megascopic Dubiofossils’ describes a group of dubiofossils which “includes various discoidal markings, sometimes with indistinct radial patterns, resembling bona fide fossils” an example of which is Aspidella from Newfoundland. He also mentions that “Although most authors have treated it as nonbiologic... the evidence now remains inconclusive...”. He includes a photograph of Aspidella terranovica from the St. John’s Group, Newfoundland (GSC type 24371) and states that “Aspidella needs restudy.”
- Jenkins (1992) commented "The widely occurring, supposed pseudofossil Aspidella terranovica Billings, 1872, present in intercalated thin sandstones and shales or ripple-bedded, flaggy sandstones near the top of the Fermeuse Formation, also show annulation and occasional radial structures similar to C. davidi, and a small central plug of sand (Conway Morris, 1989a) resembles the fill of attachment stalks of such sedentary, discoidal forms in the Flinders Ranges. ... I believe that A. terranovica is probably organic (Jenkins, 1989), and that the larger discoidal forms associated with it in the Ferrylands areas may be equivalents of the "medusiform" remains of South Australia;"
- Farmer et al. (1992) describe an assemblage of discoidal megafossils, noting that “Preservational variations are conspicuous within many Ediacaran discoidal fossils, and some taxa ... have been applied very broadly.” They do not mention Aspidella
- Runnegar (1992) in a table listing formally described species of Vendian soft-bodied metazoans that comprise the Ediacara fauna, includes
- Aspidella costata, Vodanyuk, 1989, Olenyok Uplift
- Aspidella hatyspytia, Vodanyuk, 1989, Olenyok Uplift
- Aspidella terranovica, Billings, 1872, Newfoundland, pseudofossil
- Reed et al. (1993 ) in a summary of the Precambrian in the Conterminous U.S., mention medusa-like markings, and include a 77 page appendix on Precambrian Paleontology, but do not mention Aspidella
- Fedonkin (1994) reviews Vendian body fossils and trace fossils, and makes no mention of Aspidella
- Runnegar (1995) states that “The Ediacara ‘fauna’ was discovered independently in Newfoundland (Billings 1872), Namibia (Gürich 1929) and South Australia (Sprigg 1947), and then found in many other parts of the world (Glaessner 1984). Ironically, the first Ediacaran fossil to appear in the scientific literature, Aspidella terranovica Billings 1872, was among the last to be admitted to the club. Following a long tradition, Hofmann (1971) considered...”
- Fenton et al. (1996) review Precambrian remains, with an extensive discussion of stromatolites, and mention Ediacara fauna, but do not mention Aspidella
- Crimes and Fedonkin (1996) in a brief review of Proterozoic and Phanerozoic discs note that “structures have been recorded as Aspidella by Vodanjuk (1989) from the Khatyspyt Formation of the Olenik uplift, Siberia regarded as late Proterozoic” and mention “An example from the late Proterozoic of Newfoundland recorded as Aspidella terranovica, Walcott 1899", noting that “There is clearly a need for a thorough re-examination of all these circular structures...”
- Williams et al. (1996) mention that “Fossils of soft-bodied metazoans are present in the Trepassey Formation and the lowest part of the Fermeuse Formation. A variety of problematic markings, including those named Aspidella terranovica (Billings, 1872) occur near the top of the Fermeuse Formation. Some of these are concentric markings that resemble medusoid impressions, but they are probably inorganic in origin (Hsu, 1972).”
- Thompson and Bailey (1998), according to Thompson and Bowring (2000), reported Aspidella in Argillite at Hewitts Cove, Hingham, Massachusetts
- Hofmann (1998) makes no mention of Aspidella in the text of his article summarizing Precambrian fossils of North America, includes Aspidella in his chart of Fossils and Dubiofossils but as a dubiofossil (Figure 4.1, Sheet 2, Occurrence 242), includes Billings’ papers on Aspidella in his Bibliography of occurrences of Fossils and Dubiofossils, and figures Ediacaria flindersi and small discs of Cyclomedusa or Charnodiscus as part of his paper
- Yochelson (1998), in his biography of Walcott, provides Walcott’s diary entry when Walcott looked at Aspidella in the slates at Ferryland: “A collection of the form known as Aspidella terranovica was made from the Momable terrane of the Avalon series. It prove the supposed fossil to be spherulitic concretion, and this removes it from among the possible pre-Cambrian forms of life” (Walcott 1900b, 5). Yochelson added “That was a little tidbit to add to the store of knowledge”.
- Narbonne and Gehling (1998) presented a paper entitled ‘Is Aspidella the first described Ediacaran Body Fossil"
- Waggoner (1998), in an unpublished thesis, commented “Two decades later, Billings (1873, 1874) described Aspidella terranovica from Newfoundland, noting that it had been found as early as 1860. Although considered at best a dubiofossil by most authorities since then (Walcott, 1899; Wilson, 1957; Hofmann 1982; Conway Morris 1989b), recent studies... . I have included in this analysis the “medusoid” Aspidella; this has often been considered a pseudofossil or dubiofossil, but the most recent studies...”
- Waggoner (1999) included Aspidella in his dataset of Ediacara biota and commented “Recently, Narbonne and Gehling (1998) have made what I believe to be a convincing case that the form Aspidella, which has been usually considered to be abiogenic, is a true fossil. Furthermore, it is so variable in morphology that these authors consider it the senior synonym of most of the “medusoid” taxa. This may well be correct, but much more careful work will be needed to work out the taxonomy of “medusoids,” which is already in some confusion.
- Hagadorn et al. (2000) reported “both discoidal and frondlike fossils comparable to Ediacaran taxa from the western edge of the Great Basin” and opined that “the taxonomy of simpler Ediacaran “medusoids’ is in of serious disarray; existing taxonomy is probably highly oversplit, and many, if not most, proposed ‘medusoid’ genera probably represent preservational variants of identical organisms (Jenkins, 1992; Narbonne and Gehling, 1998).”
- Cope (2000) commented that Aspidella had been “discussed by many authors and most have concluded that it was a pseudofossil; this view persisted until very recently following a major review by Hofmann (1971) but recently specimens have been found from the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland that show that the genus bears considerable similarities to Cyclomedusa, and Aspidella has been re-interpreted as a benthic medusoid (Narbonne and Gehling, 1998) thus confirming Billings’ (1872) original contention that it was an animal fossil.”
- Gehling, Narbonne, and Anderson (2000) conclude that Aspidella represents a wide variety of preservational morphs, and confirm that it is a body fossil with organic origins.
- Brasier et al. (2011) mention (at page 546) “Aspidella has recently been upgraded from a fossil of dubious biogenic origin to an all-encompassing name for discoid impressions (Gehling et al. 2000). Some Aspidella may indeed represent the attachment of sites of Ediacaran fronds but others seem likely to be microbial (e.g. Grazhdankin and Gerdes 2007) and algal impressions or even abiogenic sedimentary structures (Jensen et al. 2002). Whatever the cause of these circular markings, their sharp three-dimensional preservation on successive stacks of sedimentary laminae seems to be largely absent from Phanerozoic marine sandstones and mudrocks.”
- Murray and Howley (1881), which contains all of the yearly reports 1864-1879 for the Geological survey of Newfoundland, contains edited and amended reports.
Christopher Brett
Ottawa, Ontario
Addendum, May 6 , 15, 21, 26, June 2, 21, 2019: I’ve added to the references, added to and changed the order of some of the points, and corrected an error.
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
References and Suggested Reading
Anonymous, 1964
National Advisory Committee on Research in the Geological Sciences. Canada. Thirteenth Annual Report, 1962-63. “585 Hughes, Richard David, Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland, and Greene, Bryan, Univ. of Ottawa: Aspidella terranovica Billings - a Precambrian medusa?, 1960-64"
https://books.google.ca/books?id=y9W6AAAAIAAJ
Arldt, Dr. Theodor, 1912
Die algonkische Fauna. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, Jahrg. 27, Nr. 19, 240-242
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Barrande, Joachim, 1881
Systême Silurien Du Centre de la Bohême: Ire Partie: Recherches Paléontologiques. Vol. VI, Classe des Mollusques, Order des Acéphalés. Prague et Paris. 342 pages plus plates
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Bell, Robert, 1893
“Alexander Murray, F.G.S., F.R.S.C., C.M.G.,” Canadian Record of Science, vol. 5 (1892–93): 77–96. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/105742#page/113/mode/1up
Billings, Elkanah, 1872
On some fossils from the primordial rocks of Newfoundland. Canadian Naturalist and Quarterly Journal of Science. Volume 6, New Series, pages 465- 479 at pages 478-79.
https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/32756#page/497/mode/1up
Billings, Elkanah, 1874
Palaeozoic fossils. Volume II, Part 1. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 144 pages plus plates 1- 9
Aspidella terranovica at pages pages 76, 77
https://archive.org/details/palozoicfossils21bill/page/76
https://books.google.com/books/about/Palaeozoic_Fossils.html?id=DShGAQAAMAAJ
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The Cambrian radiation event, in: The Origin of Major Invertebrate Groups. Pages 101 -159 In House, Michael Robert (editor), 1979 The Origin of major invertebrate groups. Published for the Systematics Association by Academic Press, 515 pages
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Evolutionary trends in Remarkable Fossil Preservation Across the Ediacaran-Cambrian Transition and the Impact of Metazoan Mixing. Chapter 15, 519-568, In Allison, Peter A., and David J. Bottjer, editors, Taphonomy: Process and Bias Through Time, Volume 32, Topics in Geobiology. Springer, 592 pages
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Pre-Cambrian rocks of southeast Newfoundland . Princeton University Contribution to the Geology of Newfoundland– No. 5. From the Journal of Geology, Vol. 27, pp. 449-79
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Boyce, W.D. and Reynolds, K., 2008
The ediacaran fossil Aspidella terranovica Billings, 1872 from St. John's Convention Centre Test Pit CjAe-33. Current Research (2008) Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey, Report 08-1, pages 55-61
https://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/mines&en/geosurvey/publications/cr2008/Boyce.pdf
Burzynski, G., Narbonne, G.M., Dececchi, T.A., and Dalrymple, R. W., 2017a
The ins and outs of Ediacaran discs. Recorded at the International Symposium on the Ediacaran-Cambrian Transition, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. Palaeo cast, Published on 26 Sep 2017 Youtube Video. 13.37 minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkwcUbAb0Vo
Burzynski G, Narbonne GM, Dececchi TA, and Dalrymple RW., 2017b.
The ins and outs of Ediacaran discs. Precambrian Research 300: 246-260 [not yet read]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301926817302978
Clark, Thomas H., 1923
Aspidella-like markings from the Cambridge Slate, in New Fossils from the Vicinity of Boston. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Vol. 36 Pages 473- 485
https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofbos36bostuoft/page/484
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Cope, J.C.W., 2000
Introduction [to Palaeontology chapter], 183-? .In: Carney, J. N., Horak, J. M., Pharaoh, T. C, Gibbons, W., Wilson, D. Barclay, W. J. & Bevins, R. E, J.C.W. Cope, T.D. Ford (eds), Precambrian Rocks of England and Wales. Geological Conservation Review Series, No. 20, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough, 252 pages.
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Dana, James Dwight, 1875
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Dana, James Dwight, 1880
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Dana, James Dwight, 1894
Manual of geology. Fourth Edition. New York: American Book Co. 1087 pages
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Report on the Subcommittee on the Archean. Congrès Géologique International, Compte Rendu, 4e sess., Londres, 1888. London: Annex A, Reports of American Committee.
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Life's dawn on earth. London: Hodder & Stoughton. 239 pages.
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Montreal: Dawson Brothers, Publishers, 1889, For the use of Canadian Students, illustration, maps, 276 pages. Aspidella figured at page 44 and discussed at pages 126 and 233.
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Jukes, J. Beete, 1842
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Jukes, J. Beete, 1843
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Pseudomicrofossils from the Meso- and Cenozoic Sediments of Southern Poland . Bulletin de L'Académie Polonaise Des Sciences: Série des sciences de la terre. Vol 25, 67- ?- , Aspidella at pages 67 and 72 https://books.google.ca/books?id=9mm3AAAAIAAJ
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Matthew, G. F., 1898
A footnote to a paper by Alpheus S. Packard entitled ‘A half-century of evolution, with special reference to the effects of geological changes on animal life.’ Proceedings American Association for the Advancement of Science., vol. 47, 1898, pages 311- 356. Foot-note 1 at p. 323.
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Matthew, G. F., 1912
The Cambrian fauna of eastern Canada and southern Newfoundland. Compte rendu de la XIe session du Congrès géologique international (STOCKHOLM 1910), Volume 1. 547-559
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Merrill, F. J. H. , 1903
Natural History Museums of the United States and Canada. New York State Museum Bulletin 62, Miscellaneous 1, 233 pages
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Metzger, A. A., 1927
Zum Problem der präkambrischen Fossilen und Lebenspuren. Jahrbücher des Nassauischen Vereins für Naturkunde , Wiesbaden, vol 79, 1-17
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Miller, S. A.,1877
The American Palaeozoic fossils. Cincinnati, Ohio: Miller.253 pages
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Milne, John and Murray, Alexander, 1877
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Minicucci, J.M., 2016
Elkanah Billings: The Lawyer Who Revealed the Ancient Life of the Past.
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Who Was the First Person Known to Have Discovered Fossils of the Precambrian (Ediacaran) Organism Aspidella terranovica? Geoscience Canada 44(1):55 April 2017
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Murray, Alexander, 1866
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Murray, Alexander, 1867
Preliminary report upon the geological survey of 1867
St. John's, Nfld., 1867, 33 pages plus errata
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Murray, Alexander, 1868a
Mineral Resources of Newfoundland (from the Journal of the Society of Arts, (London,) October 11, 1867) Journal of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland 1868. 605-615
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Murray, Alexander, 1868b
Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1867
Journal of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland 1868. 616-638
http://collections.mun.ca/cdm/compoundobject/collection/h_assembly/id/42177/rec/5
Murray, Alexander, 1868c
Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1868
St. John's, N.F. Winton, 1868. 68 p.
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Murray, Alexander, 1869
The economic value of a geological survey, being a popular lecture before the Athenaeum of St. Johns, Newfoundland, delivered the 15th February, 1869. Montreal: John Lovell. 20 pages
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Murray, Alexander, 1870
Report of progress on the geological survey [of Newfoundland], for 1869-70
Journal of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland 1870. Appendix. 466-488
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Murray, Alexander, 1872
Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1871.
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Murray, Alexander, 1873
Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1872.
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Murray, Alexander, 1874
Report of Progress on Geological Survey [Newfoundland], 1873.
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Murray, Alexander, 1875
Report of Progress for the year 1874. Geological Survey. Newfoundland
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Murray, Alexander, 1876a
Report of Progress for the year 1875. Geological Survey. Newfoundland
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Murray, Alexander, 1876b
Summary of the Newfoundland railway survey.
St. John's, Nfld.: Robert Winton, 35 pages
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Murray, Alexander, 1877
Report upon the geological survey of Newfoundland for the year 1876.
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Murray, Alexander, 1878
Geography and resources of Newfoundland. From the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. London: William Clowes and Sons. 12 pages
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Murray, Alexander, 1881
Report of Alexander Murray, Esq., C.M.G., F.G.S., on Coal Boring.
Journal of the House of Assembly of Newfoundland 1881. Appendix, 543-551
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Murray, A., 1982a
Report of progress for the year 1881, Newfoundland Geological Survey; 16 pp, map. St. Johns, Newfoundland, 1882. I could not locate the individual report online. It is in Murray and Howley (1918).
Murray, Alexander, 1882b
Glaciation of Newfoundland. Proceedings and transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,
vol. 1, Section IV. Pages 55-76 https://archive.org/details/proceedingstrans11roya/page/76
Murray, Alexander, 1883
Report of Alexander Murray, Esq., 1882
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Murray, Alexander, and Howley, James Patrick, 1881
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Murray, Alexander and Howley, James P., 1918
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On the Comparative Value of Certain Geological Ages (or Groups of Formations) considered as Items of Geological Time. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Volume XXII, 334-343, see footnote page 342
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Pre-Cambrian-life. — Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 46, (3): 375-392
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Reed, J.C. Jr.,. Bickford, M. E., Houston, R.S., Link, P.K, Rankin, D.W., Sims, P.K.,Van Schmus, W. R. (editors), 1993
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Renevier, E., 1897
Chronograph géologique, 523-695, in Congrès Géologique International : Compte-rendu de la sixième Session, en Suisse Août 1894, Zurich https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/209716#page/5/mode/1up
Richards, Horace Gardiner, 1953
Record of the Rocks: The Geological Story of Eastern North America, Volume 1,
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Rose, E. R., 1952
Torbay map-area, Newfoundland, Geological Survey of Canada, Memoir 265, 1952, 64 pages, 1 map, https://doi.org/10.4095/123938
Roy, Sharat Kumar, 1932
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Ruedemann, Rudolf, 1925
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Proterozoic Fossils of Soft-bodied Metazoans (Ediacara Faunas) 999-1008, In Schopf, J. And Klein, C. (Editors), The Proterozoic Biosphere: A Multidisciplinary Study, Cambridge University Press, 1348 pages
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Vendobionta or Metazoa? Developments in understanding the Ediacara "fauna". - Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie: Abhandlungen, Volume 195, Festschrift A. Seilacher, 303-318; aspidella at 304 ,
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Schuchert, Charles, 1910
Aspidella sp.; YPM IP 154091, and 205024 to 205034 inclusive; North America; Canada; Newfoundland; Aspidella slates, cellar digging between Museum & Crosbie Hotel, St. Johns, eastern Newfoundland; Charles Schuchert; 1910-09
http://discover.odai.yale.edu/ydc/Record/2771236
Sederholm, J. J., 1912
Sur les vestiges de la vie dans les formations progonozoiques. — C. R. XI. Intern. Geol. Kongr. Stockholm, 1910. 515-523
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Seilacher, Adolf, 1990
Aspidella terranovica; YPM IP 204533; North America; Canada; Newfoundland; roadcut on W side of NF Rt 10, immediately N of Ferryland Museum, Ferryland, along E coast of Avalon Peninsula, & about 15 mi S of St. John's; Adolf Seilacher; 1990-08-26
http://collections.peabody.yale.edu/search/Record/YPM-IP-204533
Sollas, William Johnson, 1909
The Anniversary Address of the President. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Volume 65, pages i-cxxii.
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Sun, Weiguao, 1986,
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Tryon, Jr., George W. 1882
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Unknown (1949)
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+++++++++++++
Additional References
Almera, J., 1891
Mapa geológica-topográfico de la provincia de Barcelona. Hoja I, Barcelona
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Almera, D. Jaume, and Faura I Sans, D. M., 1918
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Anonymous, 1872
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Gold in Newfoundland. Scientific American: Supplement - Volume 11 - February 19, 1881, Page 4278 https://books.google.ca/books?id=6SwxAQAAMAAJ
Anonymous, 1881b
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